Graphene The Most Versatile Carbon Allotrope with Extraordinary Properties  Carbon is one of Earth’s most abundant elements and vital for living organisms. Known as the “king” of the periodic table, its chemical properties are exceptional due to an electronic structure capable of forming single, double, and triple bonds, allowing it to create up to ten million compounds.  Carbon allotropes are carbon-based materials with different molecular configurations and, consequently, unique properties. For instance, in graphite, a soft, thermally resistant, and electrically conductive material, carbon atoms form three covalent bonds in a hexagonal pattern, arranged in stacked layers loosely bonded together.  Graphite's common uses include pencils, batteries, and lubricants. Meanwhile, in diamond, an insulating material highly valued in jewelry, carbon atoms are bonded covalently in a tetrahedral structure, giving it extreme hardness used mainly for cutting tools.  Other lesser-known carbon allotropes are nanometric in size (smaller than 0.1 microns). These include fullerenes, which resemble a soccer ball and can act as semiconductors...

Plastic originated in 1860 with the development of celluloid, a material designed to replace ivory, marking the starting point for modern plastics. While plastics are indispensable in many industries, their uncontrolled use has caused an environmental crisis, prompting the need for circular economies and recycling. Not all plastics are recyclable, and recycled plastics often lose properties during processing. Nanotechnology, particularly the use of graphene, has enhanced the performance of both virgin and recycled plastics. Even in low concentrations, graphene significantly improves the strength and durability of polymers.