Category: Solutions with Graphene

The Future of Batteries

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The Future of Batteries:

Graphene as a Sustainable Solution to the Lithium Crisis

In the last decade, the global increase in demand for lithium-ion batteries has been driven by the growing popularity of electronic devices, from portable devices such as tablets, consoles, and cell phones to electric vehicles. According to the International Monetary Fund, it is estimated that by 2050 the demand for batteries will exceed supply by 40%, posing a potential crisis for industries that depend on them if viable alternatives are not implemented.

The issues with lithium-ion batteries are not limited to supply-demand balance. Lithium is a finite resource whose extraction and disposal have negative impacts on the environment and human health. Additionally, batteries present significant safety risks such as instability, overcharging, overheating, and fires.

Graphene, a two-dimensional nanomaterial of carbon with an extremely thin, transparent, and strong sheet structure, has captured the attention of battery experts. Its unique architecture allows for high electrical conductivity and chemical stability, essential characteristics for improving the performance of lithium-ion batteries (LIB), lithium-sulfur batteries (LSB), and lithium-oxygen batteries (LOB).

Benefits of Graphene in Batteries:

  1. Increased Energy Storage Capacity: Graphene has a structure with an extensive surface area, facilitating a greater number of intercalation sites for lithium ions. This translates into a significant improvement in the energy storage capacity of batteries.
  2. Improved Electrical Conductivity: Graphene’s π-π bonds allow efficient electron transport between the active materials of the electrodes and the current collectors. This reduces the internal resistance of the batteries and improves their power output, which is crucial for applications requiring high charge and discharge rates.
  3. Enhanced Stability and Durability: Graphene promotes the stability of electrode materials by preventing premature degradation during charge and discharge cycles. This not only extends the lifespan of batteries but also ensures greater cyclic stability, maintaining consistent performance over time.

Future Perspectives and Alternatives: Despite the continuous growth of the lithium-ion battery market, their environmental risks and technical limitations are driving research towards more sustainable and efficient alternatives. Some of these alternatives include sodium/sulfur-based battery systems, chitin/zinc, silicon/carbon, and combinations of graphene with other advanced materials.

At Energeia-Graphenemex, we are proud to be at the forefront of these innovations, exploring how graphene and other nanotechnological materials can continue transforming the battery industry and contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable energy future.

Writing: EF/ DHS

References:

  1. A. Ali, P.K. Shen, Nonprecious metal’s graphene-supported electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction: fundamentals to applications, Carbon Energy 2 (2020) 99.
  2. A. Ali, P.K. Shen, Recent progress in graphene-based nanostructured electrocatalysts for overall water splitting, Electrochem. Energy Rev. 3 (2020) 370;
  3. A. Ali, P.K. Shen, Recent advances in graphene-based platinum and Palladium electrocatalysts for the methanol oxidation reaction, J. Mater. Chem. 7 (2019) 22189–22217; 4. Moreno-Brieva, Fernando, & Merino-Moreno, Carlos. (2020). Scientific and Technological Links from Samsung On Lithium Batteries and Graphene. Journal of technology management & innovation, 15(4), 81
  4. Yu Yang, Renjie Wang, Zhaojie Shen, Quanqing Yu, Rui Xiong, Weixiang Shen, Towards a safer lithium-ion batteries: A critical review on cause, characteristics, warning and disposal  strategy for thermal runaway, Advances in Applied Energy, 11, 2023, 100146
  5. https://www.hibridosyelectricos.com/coches/grafeno-baterias-coches-electricos_69751_102.html
  6. https://rpp.pe/columnistas/fernandoortegasanmartin/grafeno-vs-litio-el-futuro-de-las-baterias-automotrices-noticia-1391824
  7. https://www.energymonitor.ai/tech/energy-storage/graphene-is-set-to-disrupt-the-ev-battery-market/
  8. https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/opinion/Datos-sobre-el-mercado-de-smartphones-en-Mexico-20240131-0117.html

Graphene Oxide Versatile Applications

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Graphene Oxide Versatile Applications:

From Sensing Technologies to Environmental Solutions

Graphene and its derivatives such as graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) are two-dimensional, sheet-like carbon nanomaterials with a wide range of opportunities for numerous applications due to their thinness, transparency, conductivity, flexibility, chemical stability, impermeability, and mechanical strength. In the case of GO and rGO, in addition to their large surface area with hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions inherent to graphene, they allow the adsorption of organic aromatic molecules, ions, and polymers through π-π stacking, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interactions. These properties make them suitable materials for constructing sensors or biocatalytic and photocatalytic platforms. According to various reports, the surface-to-volume ratio of graphene materials enhances the surface charge of the desired molecules, while their excellent electrical conductivity, especially at room temperature, favors electron transfer to the surface of electrodes for analysis or photocatalysis.

On the other hand, graphene sheets are not perfectly flat; they exhibit undulations formed as a result of the bonding between their carbon atoms or thermal fluctuations, which can ultimately induce magnetic fields and alter their electronic properties for designing sensors, biosensors, or electronic devices in general. Thus, through more than ten years of research and exploration of their remarkable multifunctionality, the study of graphene has transcended to the development of highly sensitive devices for monitoring, for example, the presence of harmful gases, medically relevant molecules, or proteins, and even water decontamination.

Detection Systems

Metamaterials are a type of compound with the ability to produce useful electromagnetic responses for designing sensors or non-destructive detection devices. Generally, these sensors consist of an insulating material and a conductive material, sensitive to the refractive index of the analyte’s upper layer. In the presence of graphene, it has been observed that this interaction (sensor-analyte) is enhanced by changes in resonance intensity, leading to amplitude changes that further favor detection sensitivity.

In a study conducted in 2023 by the School of Electronic and Information Engineering at Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China, a sensor was designed comprising a polyimide (PI) film as an insulating layer, an aluminum structure as a conductive layer, and a monolayer of graphene as the detection interface. Simulation results indicated that graphene could modulate the entire electric field and produce an amplitude change that significantly increases detection limits.

In another study conducted at the Laboratory of Nanostructured Materials of the Institute of Physics at UASLP, functionalized graphene oxide with gold nanoparticles was used as a SERS (Surface Enhanced Raman spectroscopy) biodetection platform, an important technique for biological detection due to its high sensitivity, low sample requirements, relatively low cost, and real-time detection. Crystal violet was used as the standard molecule and flavin adenine dinucleotide as the experimental coenzyme for its participation in numerous redox processes of metabolic reactions and biological electron transport. The results showed that graphene oxide hybrids with gold nanoparticles substantially enhance SERS signals compared to individual nanoparticles. Additionally, the results are consistent with other research on identifying significant improvements for molecule stabilization and fluorescence reduction during measurements, which is often a major drawback of such techniques, supporting its potential as a diagnostic or monitoring tool.

Toxic Gas Removal

Advances in nanoengineering allow graphene and GO sheets to be manipulated for the detection and separation of certain gases. According to the results of a study conducted by the Department of Energy Engineering at Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea, selective diffusion can be achieved by controlling the gas flow channels and pores through different stacking methods, demonstrating that GO’s functional groups provide a unique adsorption behavior towards CO2.

CO2 Conversion

The photocatalytic properties of GO can also be harnessed for converting CO2 into hydrocarbons such as methanol for solar energy capture and CO2 reduction. In 2018, at the Advanced Technology Laboratory for Materials Synthesis and Processing, Wuhan University of Technology, China, silver chromate (Ag2CrO4) nanoparticles were used as a photosensitizer and GO as a co-catalyst for the photocatalytic reduction of CO2 into methanol and methane. The study concluded that this synergy between nanoparticles could enhance conversion activity up to 2.3 times under solar irradiation due to better light absorption, increased CO2 adsorption, and improved charge separation efficiency.

Water Decontamination

Water technologies have various areas of opportunity, particularly in improving filtration or membrane systems. In this regard, it has been found that using hybrid graphene nanostructures, for example, with ruthenium or magnetite, can allow the removal of microorganisms and organic matter present in water. However, research continues to advance to perfect graphene-based methodologies for the removal and reduction of metal ions such as zinc, copper, lead, cadmium, cobalt, among others.

At Energeia-Graphenemex®, we recognize and admire the advancements that research centers have achieved in various areas of knowledge, starting from basic science to applied science results. We firmly believe that in the short or medium term, these technologies will materialize into real products that are useful to society and the environment.

Redaction: EF/ DHS   

References

  1. A. Fasolino, J.H. Los, M.I. Katsnelson, Intrinsic ripples in graphene, Nat. Mater. 6 (2007) 858;
  2. W. Bao, F. Miao, Z. Chen, H. Zhang, W. Jang, C. Dames, C.N. Lau, Controlled ripple texturing of suspended graphene and ultrathin graphite membranes, Nat. Nanotechnol. 4 (2009) 562; 3. G. Yildiz, M. Bolton-Warberg and F. Awaja. Graphene and graphene oxide for bio-sensing: General properties and the effects of graphene ripples. Acta Biomaterialia 131 (2021) 62;
  3. Lang, T.; Xiao, M.; Cen,W. Graphene-Based Metamaterial Sensor for Pesticide Trace Detection. Biosensors 2023, 13, 560;
  4. D. Hernández- Sánchez, E. G. Villabona Leal, I. Saucedo-Orozco, V. Bracamonte, E. Pérez, C. Bittencourt and M. Quintana, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2017;
  5. Kim, H.W.; Yoon, H.W.; Yoon, S.-M.; Yoo, B.M.; Ahn, B.K.; Cho, Y.H.; Shin, H.J.; Yang, H.; Paik, U.; Kwon, S. Selective gas transport through few-layered graphene and graphene oxide membranes. Science 2013, 342, 91;
  6. Kim, D.; Kim, D.W.; Lim, H.-K.; Jeon, J.; Kim, H.; Jung, H.-T.; Lee, H. Intercalation of gas molecules in graphene oxide interlayer: The role of water. J. Phys. Chem. C 2014, 118, 11142;
  7. Xu, D.; Cheng, B.; Wang, W.; Jiang, C.; Yu, J. Ag2CrO4/g-C3N4/graphene oxide ternary nanocomposite Z-scheme photocatalyst with enhanced CO2 reduction activity. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2018, 231, 368;
  8. Jiˇríˇcková, A.; Jankovský, O.; Sofer, Z.; Sedmidubský, D. Synthesis and Applications of Graphene Oxide. Materials 2022, 15, 920;
  9. M. Quintana, E. Vazquez & M. Prato, “Organic Functionalization of Graphene in Dispersions”, Acc. Chem. Res., vol. 46, n.o 1, pp. 138-148, 2013. DOI: 10.1021/ar300138e;
  10. Roberto Urcuyo1,2,3, Diego González-Flores1,3, Karla Cordero-Solano, Rev. Colomb. Quim., vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 51-85, 2021;
  11. B. Xue, M. Qin, J. Wu et al., “Electroresponsive Supramolecular Graphene Oxide Hydrogels for Active Bacteria Adsorption and Removal”, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 8, 24, 15120;
  12. C. Wang, C. Feng, Y. Gao, X. Ma, Q. Wu & Z. Wang, “Preparation of a graphene-based magnetic nanocomposite for the removal of an organic dye from aqueous solution”, Chem. Eng. J.,173, 1, 92.

Graphene as the Driver of the Energy Revolution

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Graphene as the Driver of the Energy Revolution:

Advances in Efficiency and Renewable Energy Storage

In today’s context, environmental concerns and climate change have shifted from being a trend to a top priority. This has led to the formation of multidisciplinary teams globally, focused on finding more sustainable technological solutions for energy challenges, such as energy generation and storage, with the additional aim of minimizing emissions.

In this context, thermal energy management through passive technologies, like solar energy, has gained significant importance. Its utilization as an eco-friendly and energetically efficient alternative has seen substantial growth, from its application in domestic settings to electricity generation systems.

However, the natural intermittence of solar energy due to diurnal and nocturnal cycles poses long-term challenges. Hence, it’s imperative to consider complementary technologies like Phase Change Materials (PCMs). These materials can absorb thermal energy from the surroundings to change their state, releasing stored energy for heating or cooling applications in various sectors, including construction, electronics, and aerospace.

Among the well-known PCMs is paraffin, which undergoes a solid-liquid phase change to store latent heat by absorbing thermal energy until reaching its melting point. While paraffins offer advantages such as being safe, reliable, economical, and having acceptable stability for long crystallization-fusion cycles, they also face challenges such as low thermal conductivity and leakage in the liquid state.

Fortunately, PCMs, including paraffin, benefit from advances in nanotechnology, especially when modified with nanoparticles like Graphene. Incorporating Graphene into PCMs like paraffin significantly enhances thermal conductivity and energy efficiency, facilitating solar-to-thermal energy conversion and storage.

What makes Graphene so special?

Graphene, with its exceptional physicochemical properties, is one of the most promising nanomaterials as a co-adjuvant in addressing energy-related challenges. Unlike other carbon nanostructures like diamond, graphite, activated carbon, fullerenes, or nanotubes, Graphene exhibits superior electrical and mechanical properties, with the added advantage of easy combination with other compounds like PCMs to share characteristics and enhance performance. For example, compared to nanotubes, one of the most well-known and studied carbon nanostructures, Graphene boasts higher charge mobility (200,000 cm2 V 1 s 1 Vs. 150,000 cm2 V 1 s 1), greater electrical conductivity (6.6 MS m -1 Vs. 0.35 MS m -1), and higher transmittance (97.0% Vs. 95.7%), making it highly attractive for energy-related applications.

How does Graphene relate to PCMs for solar energy utilization?

Historically, from a sustainable perspective and as a real-world application, architecture is a clear example of solar energy utilization. Starting from ancient times with the construction of adobe walls to trap daytime heat and release it at night, to modern infrastructure using heaters or solar panels, to Trombe walls as a passive heating tool. For instance, Trombe walls comprise materials like glass, wood, steel, aluminum, concrete, and PCMs like paraffin, arranged in special configurations that collectively absorb heat to slowly conduct it into the dwelling.

Through the identification of Graphene’s multifunctional properties and the exploration of its benefits in various sectors, it was found that its integration into paraffin used for passive heating systems can significantly improve thermal conductivity or driving force by up to 164%, showcasing clear superiority over highly efficient hybrid nanoparticles like Cu-TiO2 or Al2O3-MWCNT, whose normal benefits range between 50 and 70%. This means that integrating these technologies into passive heating systems, besides improving thermal comfort throughout the year, would also yield significant energy savings and reduce CO2 emissions.

Solar cells

Another well-known potential application of nanotechnology in the energy sector is the design of the fourth generation of solar panels, which includes the use of two-dimensional nanomaterials like molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), tungsten diselenide (WSe2), and again, Graphene.

Among the most representative advantages that Graphene has demonstrated over other materials are, in addition to its mechanical strength, its high charge mobility, great transmittance, lightness, flexibility, and stability, which have led to significant advances in its performance for solar panel design, increasing its efficiency from 1.5% to 15% in less than 10 years, almost comparable to the efficiency of current cells ranging from 20 to 22%. However, in pursuit of further improving these percentages, experts in the field continue to explore methodologies based on Graphene doping with other structures like silicon, molybdenum hexafluoride, molybdenum oxide, thionyl chloride, trioxionitric acid, gold chloride, boron, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur, to reduce its resistance and better harness solar energy.

At Energeia-Graphenemex, the leading company in Latin America in the design and development of graphene-based applications, we are aware of the challenges that Graphene, like any emerging technology, faces, and we are pleased to be part of the select group of researchers and industrialists globally seeking to benefit society, the economy, and the environment with the advantages these wonderful materials can offer.

Thanks to our multidisciplinary team, we have quickly overcome the obstacles that have hindered the arrival of this material to the market in real applications, starting with its large-scale production, with controlled quality and at an affordable cost, as well as with the development of new products with graphene nanoengineering, where controlling its stability and compatibility with compounds and processes used in each application or industry has been fundamental.

Graphene as an ally of renewable energies is still in its early stages, not necessarily due to its manipulation but because of the complexity this sector represents. However, the significant advances made over the past decade should not be underestimated, as they lay the groundwork for the next generations of equipment and technologies.

Redaction: EF/DHS

References

  1. Jafaryar M, Sheikholeslami M. Simulation of melting paraffin with graphene nanoparticles within a solar thermal energy storage system. Sci Rep. 2023, 26;13(1):8604;
  2. R. Bharathiraja, T. Ramkumar, M. Selvakumar. Studies on the thermal characteristics of nano-enhanced paraffin wax phase change material (PCM) for thermal storage applications. J. Energy Storage, 73, Part C, 2023, 109216;
  3. Li-Wu Fan, Xin Fang, Xiao Wang, Yi Zeng, Yu-Qi Xiao, Zi-Tao Yu, Xu Xu, Ya-Cai Hu, Ke-Fa Cen, Effects of various carbon nanofillers on the thermal conductivity and energy storage properties of paraffin-based nanocomposite phase change materials, Applied Energy, 110, 2013, 163;
  4. Top Khac Le., et al., Advances in solar energy harvesting integrated by van der Waals graphene heterojunctions. RSC Adv., 2023, 13, 31273

Advancing Asphalt Durability

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Advancing Asphalt Durability:

Harnessing Graphene’s Potential for Sustainable Roads

Most of the the world’s road infrastructure is composed of pavement made from a complex system of asphalt, aggregates, and binders that interact at an interface to maintain its strength and structural stability. According to the Asphalt Institute, 87 million tons of asphalt are produced worldwide annually, with around 85% used in the paving industry, which, while offering great load capacity and durability, inevitably suffers damage from constant exposure to radiation, temperature, humidity, and traffic.

The deterioration of asphalt not only impacts a basic transportation infrastructure crucial for socio-economic development but also involves environmental impacts in terms of resource depletion and high CO2 emissions caused by roadworks. These factors add to the reasons for the constant search for modification technologies that increase durability and improve mechanical properties of pavements using fibers, rubber; additives such as thermoplastic elastomers, plastic and synthetic resins, iron powder, hydrated lime, or glass waste. However, in some cases, the application of these products can present practical problems such as special preparation conditions, low storage stability, difficulty in mixing during construction, and complexity in compatibilizing these components with the asphalt system.

Fortunately, carbon nanostructures such as graphene and graphene oxide (GO) reappear on the scene as proposed solutions to these issues with interesting contributions to asphalt regarding stiffness, anti-aging, deformation, and penetration resistance; reduction in rutting, improved consistency, heat transfer capacity; skid resistance, and even a reduction in the effort required for compaction during preparation.

Additionally, among the advantages of graphene is its ability to be mixed with other asphalt modifying technologies such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), granulated rubber, blast furnace slag, epoxy resins, and especially with styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS), which is one of the most accepted polymers in the asphalt industry, and with which graphene oxide (GO), thanks to its oxygen content, promotes the absorption of aromatics and saturates from SBS with a significant improvement in temperature response, adhesion, and binder stiffness.

Some identified methods that promise to simplify the incorporation of graphene into asphalt mixes are:

  1. Direct addition method: graphene is added to the previously melted asphalt binder.
  2. Indirect addition method: graphene and asphalt binder are simultaneously dissolved in a medium solution to later form a uniform solution.
  3. Auxiliary addition method: graphene is chemically modified with functional groups or added together with other modifying agents to later melt into the asphalt binder.

Although there are few companies that have explored graphene as an asphalt improving additive so far, the extensive research conducted over the past decade is helping to lay the groundwork for understanding and projecting the potential of this technology for the benefit of the paving industry. Even in February 2024, the Infrastructure journal published the results of the ECOPAVE project funded by the European Union, which consisted of a 5-year field test conducted over 1 km of heavy traffic in southern Rome, Italy. For the study, four sections of asphalt pavement with and without additions of graphene-modified polymers were installed. After the 5-year evaluation period, researchers reaffirmed the potential of asphalt modified with graphene polymer as an innovative and feasible technology for high-traffic road paving, as it demonstrated higher stiffness values at different temperatures, better fatigue behavior, and greater deformation resistance, promising an extended lifespan with a significant reduction in maintenance costs.

At Energeia-Graphenemex®, as leaders in graphene application development, we firmly believe that, although there is still work to be done, we are very close to enjoying the economic and environmental benefits that this wonderful technology can bring not only to our streets and roads but also to society.

Draft: EF/DHS

References

  1. Mechanism and Performance of Graphene Modified Asphalt: An Experimental Approach Combined with Molecular Dynamic Simulations. Case Studies in Construction Materials. 2023, 18, e01749;
  2. Properties and Characterization Techniques of Graphene Modified Asphalt Binders. Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 955;
  3. Analysis on the road performance of graphene composite rubber asphalt and its mixture. Case Studies in Construction Materials. 2022, 17, e01664;
  4. A complete study on an asphalt concrete modified with Graphene and recycled hard-plastics: A case study. Case Studies in Construction Materials. 2022, 17, e01437;
  5. Effect of Graphene Oxide on Aging Properties of polyurethane-SBS Modified Asphalt and Asphalt Mixture. Polymers 2022, 14, 3496;
  6. Mechanical Characteristics of Graphene Nanoplatelets-Modified Asphalt Mixes: A Comparison with Polymer- and Not-Modified Asphalt Mixes. Materials 2021, 14, 2434;
  7. Impact of Graphene Oxide on Zero Shear Viscosity, Fatigue Life and Low-Temperature Properties of Asphalt Binder. Materials 2021, 14, 3073;
  8. Experimental Investigation into the Structural and Functional Performance of Graphene Nano-Platelet (GNP)-Doped Asphalt. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 686;
  9. Modified Asphalt with Graphene-Enhanced Polymeric Compound: A Case Study. Infrastructures 2024, 9, 39.

Glass and Carbon Fiber Composites Enhancement

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Glass and Carbon Fiber Composites Enhancement:

Improving Properties with Graphene Nanoparticles

Glass and carbon fibers, thanks to their excellent properties, are widely used in industries such as aerospace, maritime, automotive, sports, construction, and even in the manufacturing of fundamental components for renewable energies such as wind power. However, despite their excellent performance, they often exhibit a phenomenon known as “interlaminar delamination” due to weak fiber/resin interfacial interaction, which can compromise the product’s lifespan and safety due to their significant role in stress transfer between both elements. As this interaction is key to the long-term success of composite structures, various improvement alternatives have been explored, such as Z-pinning, stitching, and braiding; increasing the surface area and reactivity of fibers through surface modifications such as plasma treatment, thermal modification, or chemical functionalization, which are complex, costly processes that are not always efficient and tend to reduce the laminate’s in-plane performance.

“As an additional strategy of relatively recent emergence, the incorporation of nanoparticles into fiber composite materials was proposed to favor interaction with the embedding matrix.”

Graphene, the nanomaterial known as the cornerstone of the carbon family and which since its isolation has been described as “the material of the future” or “the miracle material,” is an attractive candidate as a nanoreinforcement for countless polymeric compounds due to its unique graphitized flat structure, which leads to better mechanical, thermal, and other properties that, unlike other nanoparticles such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), do not significantly increase resin viscosity and therefore allow higher concentrations to be incorporated, favoring the aforementioned fiber/matrix interaction.

Research on the effects of graphene for the design of hybrid materials based on fibers (glass/carbon) embedded in a commonly epoxy-based polymeric matrix has highlighted greater compound stiffness, improvements in fracture resistance, better lubrication, and even improved electrical conductivity. This is because its large surface area allows effective load transmission from the soft polymer matrix to the relatively stiffer graphene sheets, which is an essential requirement for improving mechanical performance, confirmed by increased interlaminar shear strength of the material, greater tensile and impact strength. Additionally, during the manipulation and cutting of hybrid fiber structures, the presence of graphene contributes to generating less heat during milling, leading to lower cutting temperatures and smoother surface roughness; likewise, another benefit is that graphene produces a greater hardening effect and better bending resistance of the material exposed to different temperatures ranging from 40 °C to 200 °C.

At Energeia-Graphenemex, the leading company in Latin America in the production of graphene materials and in the development of applications, we are convinced that graphene’s extraordinary capabilities as a nanoreinforcement for countless three-dimensional matrices will continue to encourage researchers and industrial colleagues to explore its benefits for the manufacture of stronger and lighter structural components for aircraft such as fuselage and wings; automotive parts and aerodynamic bodywork; wind turbines, sports equipment, construction materials, among others.

Draft: EF/DH

References:

  1. Effect of dispersion of alumina nanoparticles and graphene nanoplatelets on microstructural and mechanical characteristics of hybrid carbon/glass fibers reinforced polymer composite. Journal of material research and technology. 2021, 14, 2624;
  2. Experimental investigation on the properties of glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites containing Graphene. AIP Conf. Proc. 2022, 2405, 050009;
  3. Reinforcement effect of graphene oxide in glass fibre/epoxy composites at in-situ elevated temperature environments: An emphasis on graphene oxide content. Composites part A: Applied science and manufacturing. 2017, 95, 40;
  4. Preparation and Mechanical Properties of Graphene/Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Hierarchical Polymer Composites. J. compos sci. 2019, 3, 30;
  5. Improving fiber/matrix interfacial strength through graphene and graphene-oxide nano platelets. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 2016, 139, 012004;
  6. Effect of Graphene on Machinability of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP). J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2019, 3, 78;
  7. Size effect of graphene nanoplatelets on the morphology and mechanical behavior of glass fiber/epoxy composites. J Mater Sci. 2016, 51, 3337.

Tapping into Graphene’s Potential:

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Tapping into Graphene’s Potential:

Enhancing Coatings with Nanotechnology for Weather Resistance

Coatings are designed for decorative purposes and to protect surfaces, especially against corrosion and moisture. In a coating system (multilayer), the top or finishing layer plays a crucial role as it must provide a good appearance and protect the inner layers and the substrate against environmental factors such as sunlight, humidity, corrosion, chemical resistance, soiling, etc., throughout its lifespan.

Today, Polyurethane (PU) is considered one of the coatings with the best physical-chemical characteristics for finishing coating applications and for its weather resistance. However, its weather resistance decreases with exposure to ultraviolet light over long periods.

Sunlight is one of the main causes of damage to coatings. Damage ranges from loss of physical properties, powdering (chalking), cracking, peeling, discoloration, and color change, because of chemical photodegradation, migration, evaporation, and interaction of other components with the coating.

In recent years, various nanostructured materials such as titanium, zinc oxide, cerium, and iron oxide have been implemented to improve the weather resistance of polymeric coatings. The mechanism is based on their projection effect (both absorption and dispersion) of incident rays in the UV region. These materials can stabilize coatings against exterior exposure, possess photocatalytic activity that can destroy the organic binder material present in coatings, leading to modifying the surface of these nanostructured materials to eliminate or inhibit their photocatalytic activity, requiring more processes, time, and money.

Recently, graphene has attracted much attention as a new additive and material for producing coatings to enhance anticorrosive, antimicrobial, and weather-resistant properties, due to its special electronic structure that provides unique electrical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Graphene is a nanomaterial formed by one or more layers of carbon (formed by carbon atoms bonded hexagonally with a thickness of one carbon atom). This structure enables graphene-based materials to absorb photons in the UV region. This UV absorption capacity, as well as the absence of photocatalytic activity of graphene materials, allows introducing these materials as new additives for the photo-stabilization of polymeric coatings, i.e., with greater resistance to UV radiation

Currently, Energeia – Graphenemex®, is in constant development of nanotechnological coatings with better properties. Studies have been conducted on the influence of graphene oxide on the weathering behavior of PU coatings. To evaluate the performance of graphene oxide, a PU coating with graphene oxide (PU/GO) was compared with a PU coating containing a commercial organic UV absorber (PU/control).

Color change in a coating during exposure to weathering (sunlight) is the most important and rapid parameter to visually evaluate coating degradation. To evaluate, color change, samples coated with Polyurethane with and without graphene material were introduced into an accelerated weathering chamber (based on ASTM G154). According to the standard, a QUV weathering chamber model QUV/se was used to accelerate weathering conditions. Coated samples were cyclically exposed to UVA radiation (energy 0.89 W/m2) for 8 hours, followed by moisture condensation for 4 hours at 50 °C. The color of the coatings was evaluated before exposure to compare their initial color, and subsequently evaluated at different exposure times, this evaluation was performed until reaching an exposure time of 1200 hours.

The main component of color typically considered in weathering behavior is the total color change or Delta E (ΔE). Fig. 1 shows the ΔE, as the most comprehensive criterion of color changes, which is the sum of changes in all color components.

As can be seen, most of the color variations throughout the exposure time belong to the PU/control coating. The sample containing graphene oxide (PU/GO) at 251 hours of exposure time shows a lower color change compared to PU/control. With the increase in exposure time in the weathering chamber, color variations can be observed, but the sample with graphene oxide continues to show lower color changes, indicating that the incorporation of GO in Polyurethane provides more resistance and maintains its stability for longer exposure times to weathering.

Fig 1. Total color change (ΔE) versus exposure time for Polyurethane coatings with graphene oxide (PU/GO) and without graphene oxide (PU/control) during accelerated weathering test.

From a physical point of view, graphene oxide (GO) has higher transmittance in the visible region compared to graphene, which is more favorable for its use as a UV protector in finishing coatings. On the other hand, thanks to the high surface area of graphene materials, they can also provide excellent barrier effect properties and thus develop anticorrosive coatings with greater weather resistance.

Energeia – Graphenemex®, through its Graphenergy line, offers a wide range of nanotechnological coatings with graphene. These coatings offer high anticorrosive and antimicrobial protection. In addition to providing high wear resistance, UV resistance, impermeability, and extraordinary adhesion, with the aim of improving the life of any surface or installation and reducing maintenance costs.

References

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  5. S.M. Mirabedini, M. Sabzi, J. Zohuriaan-Mehr, M. Atai, M. Behzadnasab,
  6. Weathering performance of the polyurethane nanocomposite coatings containing silane treated TiO2 nanoparticles, Appl. Surf. Sci. 257 (no. 9) (2011) 4196–4203.
  7. N.S. Allen, M. Edge, A. Ortega, C.M. Liauw, J. Stratton, R.B. McIntyre, Behaviour of nanoparticle (ultrafine) titanium dioxide pigments and stabilisers on the photooxidative stability of water based acrylic and isocyanate based acrylic coatings, Polym. Degrad. Stab. 78 (no. 3) (2002) 467–478.
  8. Effect of Silane Modified Nano ZnO on UV Degradation of Polyurethane Coatings. vol. 79, (2015), pp. 68–74.
  9. M. Rashvand, Z. Ranjbar, S. Rastegar, Nano zinc oxide as a UV-stabilizer for aromatic polyurethane coatings, Prog. Org. Coatings 71 (4) (Aug. 2011) 362–368.

Textile Innovations II

Posted on | by Energeia Graphenemex

Textile Innovations:

Exploring Graphene Trends in the Industry

Part II

In the previous article on Textile Innovations, we explored the trends of graphene in the industry, focusing on its practical applications in textiles, leveraging its electrical, thermal, fire resistance, and mechanical properties. In this article, we will delve into the advantages of graphene, considering its multifunctional benefits such as its barrier effect with a focus on waterproofing and antimicrobial properties, as well as its contributions to UV protection and comfort.

Mechanical Resistance

The well-known high mechanical strength of graphene, with a Young’s modulus of ~1100 GPa and a tensile strength of 42 N/m, makes a single layer of graphene 200 times stronger than steel of equal thickness. This strength can be utilized in graphene-modified composites, enabling them to withstand significant forces without deformation, achieving greater strength with a smaller gauge. In wool fabrics, excellent linearity with over 20% elongation, moisture resistance from 30 to 90%, and good electrical and mechanical properties have been observed.

Barrier Properties

The hydrophobic nature of graphene, the size of its nanochannels, and the high electron density on its surface make it highly impermeable to particulate matter, liquids, and gases. Graphene compounds interact with other materials and molecularly organize their three-dimensional structure, creating compounds that are not only impermeable but also mechanically stronger and with significant recovery or deformation resistance.

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Antimicrobial Barrier

Graphene’s antimicrobial capability is advantageous in the textile industry, considering the persistent challenge of microorganism anchoring, proliferation, and spread on garments, especially in the medical sector.

Antimicrobial Barrier Mechanisms

– Size Exclusion: The interatomic distance of carbon atoms in graphene (0.142 nm – 0.9 nm) provides a barrier that microorganisms, with sizes ranging from 10 nm to 3 micrometers, cannot permeate.

– Oxidative Stress: Interactions between the polar ends of phospholipids in cell membranes and graphene generate irreversible oxidative stress and microbial death. Its strong protein anchoring capability can inhibit the enzymatic capacity of some microorganisms.

– Membrane Damage: The sharp edges of graphene layers physically damage the structure of microorganisms, preventing microbial adhesion to surfaces without adverse effects on the skin.

UV Protection

Graphene’s absorption spectrum covers the entire electromagnetic spectrum, with a peak absorption around 281 nm, allowing it to absorb UV radiation with a wavelength between 100 and 281 nm. For wavelengths longer than 281 nm, graphene’s reflective properties play a crucial role in UV radiation resistance and, consequently, in the increased durability of materials exposed to the elements.

Comfort

Traditional textiles like cotton, linen, or silk are highly hydrophilic but have limited water molecule transport capacity. The hydrophobicity of graphene compounds prevents water transport to the inner layer and simultaneously transports water inversely to its outer surface. Its excellent thermal regulation capability prevents the concentration of heat and moisture, creating an environment inhospitable for the proliferation of microorganisms, thus preventing infections, stains, and unpleasant odors.

At Energeia-Graphenemex®, leaders in Latin America in graphene production and development, we are convinced of the tremendous potential of this material to meet the needs of industrial sectors such as the textile industry. We are committed to addressing the scientific, technical, economic, and ethical needs of each project, serving as a strategic ally for companies seeking to innovate and improve their products and processes through the integration of graphene technologies. We look forward to introducing the first graphene textiles in Mexico soon.

Redaction: EF/DH

References:

  1. Graphene Modified Multifunctional Personal Protective Clothing. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 6, 1900622;
  2. Graphene-based fabrics and their applications: a review. RSC Advances. 2016, 6:68261;
  3. Fabrication of a graphene coated nonwoven textile for industrial applications. Australian Institute for Innovative Materials – Papers. 2016, 2173;
  4. New Perspectives on Graphene/ Polymer Fibers and Fabrics for Smart Textiles: The Relevance of the Polymer/Graphene Interphase. Front. Mater. 2018, 5:18;
  5. Graphene applied textile materials for wearable e-textile. 5 th International Istanbul Textile Congress 2015: Innovative Technologies Inspire to Innovate‖ September 11th -12th 2015 Istanbul, Turkey;
  6. The Effect of Graphene Oxide on Flame Retardancy of Polypropylene and Polystyrene. Materials Performance and Characterization 2020, 9, 1, 284;
  7. Engineering Graphene Flakes for Wearable Textile Sensors via Highly Scalable and Ultrafast Yarn Dyeing Technique. ACS Nano 2019, 13, 4, 3847;
  8. Highly Conductive, Scalable, and Machine Washable Graphene-Based E-Textiles for Multifunctional Wearable Electronic Applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 2000293;
  9. Moisture- Resilient graphene – dyed wool fabric for strain sensing. ACS App. Mater. Interfaces. 2020, 12, 11,13265;
  10. Creating Smart and Functional Textile Materials with Graphene. Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology Biomedical, Environmental, and Industrial Applications. 2021, Chapter 13.;
  11. Graphene oxide incorporated waste wool/PAN hybrid fibres. Sci Rep 2021, 11, 12068;
  12. Moisture-Resilient Graphene-Dyed Wool Fabric for Strain Sensing. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2020, 12, 11, 13265;
  13. Thermal Degradation and Flame-Retardant Mechanism of the Rigid Polyurethane Foam Including Functionalized Graphene Oxide. Polymers 2019, 11, 78;
  14. Tuning sound absorbing properties of open cell polyurethane foam by impregnating graphene oxide. App Acoustics. 151, 2019, 10;
  15. Intumescent flame-retardant polyurethane/reduced graphene oxide composites with improved mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties. Journal of Materials Science. 2014, 49, 243;
  16. Production and characterization of Graphene Nanoplatelet-based ink for smart textile strain sensors via screen printing technique. Materials & Design. 198, 15 2021, 109306;
  17. Caracterización de un tejido mezcla poliéster/ algodón aplicando grafeno mediante el proceso de adsorción. Tesis 2020;
  18. Síntesis y formulación de nuevas espumas de poliuretano flexibles con propiedades mejoradas. Tesis 2018.

Textile Innovations

Posted on | by Energeia Graphenemex

Textile Innovations:

Exploring Graphene Trends in the Industry

Part I

Graphene, a two-dimensional nanomaterial made of carbon atoms, is revolutionizing materials science and nanotechnology. It stands as the only known material that combines a myriad of thermal, electrical, mechanical, optical, and other properties. Moreover, it can integrate with other structures, sharing and significantly enhancing their original characteristics. Since its isolation in 2004, researchers and industries worldwide have sought to leverage its extraordinary benefits. However, high production costs and challenges in obtaining sufficient quantities for industrial applications have hindered widespread market adoption.

Despite these challenges, the textile industry has not remained idle in the face of the opportunities presented by graphene nanotechnology. Over the last decade, it has explored not only graphene but also other nanomaterials like copper nanoparticles (CuNp’s), silver (AgNp’s), gold (AuNp’s), zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and carbon nanotubes, among others. The goal is to imbue textiles with antimicrobial properties, flame retardancy, mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and various other attributes. The key difference lies in graphene’s multifunctional capabilities; it can provide or enhance more than one benefit simultaneously.

What Benefits Does Graphene Offer in the Textile Industry?

Graphene boasts an extensive and complex list of properties, ranging from mechanical to barrier-related, making it highly attractive for numerous applications. In the textile industry, initial interest focused on its electrical and thermal conductivity. However, extensive research has unveiled a wide array of benefits correlating with its multifunctionality.

It’s crucial to note that the extraordinary characteristics of graphene, as described in the literature, often pertain to measurements conducted on nanomaterials in their pure form. To truly capitalize on their benefits in tangible applications, it’s necessary to combine them with three-dimensional materials capable of transferring their properties. Polymeric matrices have proven highly efficient as a support for graphene materials, with interfaces that are strong and stable facilitating superior property transfer.

How Does Graphene Interact with Textile Materials?

At the nanoscale, interaction mechanisms depend on multiple factors and generally involve electrostatic interactions, Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, π-π interactions, or hydrophobic interactions. On the macroscale, understanding this interaction is contingent on the type of graphene, textile material, and the integration method or timing. The latter is particularly crucial because having the right graphene is not sufficient; anchoring and permanence throughout the structure of natural or synthetic textile fibers are variables that increase complexity.

In many cases, additional chemical modifications to graphene are necessary, and the implementation of other additives for charge modification is considered. Various technologies, such as vacuum infiltration, pressing, or dyeing methods, may be employed to improve interaction. However, these methods may be superficial, and achieving mechanical or flame-retardant benefits may require further chemical modifications or the use of specific technologies.

Due to the breadth of the topic, this article is divided into two sections. In this first part, we will discuss the uses of electrical, thermal (fire resistance), and mechanical properties of graphene in textiles. The next publication will conclude the description of barrier properties, protection against UV radiation, and comfort.

Electrical Conductivity

Graphene’s high electrical conductivity is fascinating for manufacturing smart textiles incorporating sensors, microprocessors, light indicators, fiber optics, etc. Applications extend to textiles with electromagnetic and antistatic protection, with potential uses in industries like oil, mining, military, and medicine. Graphene’s corrosion-free, lightweight, and flexible nature sets it apart from metallic fibers.

Studies have explored incorporating digital or electronic components into garments, such as glucose monitors, heart rate monitors, gas sensors, tension and torsion monitors, motion sensors, acoustic sensors, pulse sensors, or even solar energy harvesting.

Thermal Conductivity

Graphene’s well-known thermal conductivity benefits the rapid dissipation of heat in various materials, including textiles. Its integration into viscoelastic materials for mattresses or textiles used in summer garments helps maintain thermal balance associated with comfort and rest. Therapeutic applications are also being studied to stimulate blood circulation and aid muscle recovery from fatigue.

Graphene textiles have been used as heating elements in industrial and residential heating components such as carpets, car seats, and de-icing systems for aircraft access routes. Graphene, being corrosion-free and allowing for lower weight, offers additional advantages over metallic heating elements.

Fire Resistance

The thermal stability of graphene materials depends on their chemical structure and can range from 500°C to 3000°C. However, these conditions may vary when functionalized or combined with other materials. In certain cases, graphene can increase the decomposition temperature and ignition time. Graphene acts as a gas barrier due to its tortuous internal structure, reducing the diffusion of combustible gas to the flame source, inhibiting oxygen diffusion, delaying initial combustion, and preventing re-ignition. Graphene improves the thermal stability of polymers by decreasing the heat release rate, preventing fire spread, and reducing ignition time.

While some polymers with graphene may accelerate ignition time, once a carbon layer forms, it covers the polymer’s external surface and protects the sublayer from fire spread. Graphene’s chemical composition is free of halogens, eliminating the release of furans and dioxins that cause environmental issues.

At Energeia-Graphenemex®, leaders in Latin America in graphene production and development, we believe in the tremendous potential of this material to meet the needs of industrial sectors such as the textile industry. We are also aware of the scientific, technical, economic, and ethical needs inherent in each project. As a strategic ally, we collaborate with companies interested in innovating and improving their products and processes by forming multidisciplinary teams to pave the way for the introduction of new technologies like graphene into the market. We look forward to soon seeing the first graphene textiles in Mexico.

Redaction: EF/DH

References:

  1. Graphene Modified Multifunctional Personal Protective Clothing. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 6, 1900622;
  2. Graphene-based fabrics and their applications: a review. RSC Advances. 2016, 6:68261;
  3. Fabrication of a graphene coated nonwoven textile for industrial applications. Australian Institute for Innovative Materials – Papers. 2016, 2173;
  4. New Perspectives on Graphene/ Polymer Fibers and Fabrics for Smart Textiles: The Relevance of the Polymer/Graphene Interphase. Front. Mater. 2018, 5:18;
  5. Graphene applied textile materials for wearable e-textile. 5 th International Istanbul Textile Congress 2015: Innovative Technologies Inspire to Innovate‖ September 11th -12th 2015 Istanbul, Turkey;
  6. The Effect of Graphene Oxide on Flame Retardancy of Polypropylene and Polystyrene. Materials Performance and Characterization 2020, 9, 1, 284;
  7. Engineering Graphene Flakes for Wearable Textile Sensors via Highly Scalable and Ultrafast Yarn Dyeing Technique. ACS Nano 2019, 13, 4, 3847;
  8. Highly Conductive, Scalable, and Machine Washable Graphene-Based E-Textiles for Multifunctional Wearable Electronic Applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 2000293;
  9. Moisture- Resilient graphene – dyed wool fabric for strain sensing. ACS App. Mater. Interfaces. 2020, 12, 11,13265;
  10. Creating Smart and Functional Textile Materials with Graphene. Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology Biomedical, Environmental, and Industrial Applications. 2021, Chapter 13.;
  11. Graphene oxide incorporated waste wool/PAN hybrid fibres. Sci Rep 2021, 11, 12068;
  12. Moisture-Resilient Graphene-Dyed Wool Fabric for Strain Sensing. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2020, 12, 11, 13265;
  13. Thermal Degradation and Flame-Retardant Mechanism of the Rigid Polyurethane Foam Including Functionalized Graphene Oxide. Polymers 2019, 11, 78;
  14. Tuning sound absorbing properties of open cell polyurethane foam by impregnating graphene oxide. App Acoustics. 151, 2019, 10;
  15. Intumescent flame-retardant polyurethane/reduced graphene oxide composites with improved mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties. Journal of Materials Science. 2014, 49, 243;
  16. Production and characterization of Graphene Nanoplatelet-based ink for smart textile strain sensors via screen printing technique. Materials & Design. 198, 15 2021, 109306;
  17. Caracterización de un tejido mezcla poliéster/ algodón aplicando grafeno mediante el proceso de adsorción. Tesis 2020;
  18. Síntesis y formulación de nuevas espumas de poliuretano flexibles con propiedades mejoradas. Tesis 2018.

Defying the flames

Posted on | by Energeia Graphenemex

Defying the flames:

The triumph of graphene oxide in the creation of fire-fighting coatings

The inclusion of Graphene Oxide (GO) in coatings demonstrates effectiveness in inhibiting flammability, providing a fire-resistant barrier. Benefits include anti-corrosion protection, antimicrobial properties and increased adhesion to substrates. This advance highlights Energeia-Graphenemex’s innovation in the production of fireproof coatings, positioning itself as a leader in the research and application of high-quality graphene materials.

Coatings are used in various sectors, at an industrial level the use of coatings are focused on protection against corrosion, while at a commercial level they are used for infrastructure maintenance and for decorative purposes. Today, the coatings industry continues to constantly research the development of improved coatings, with antimicrobial, non-stick properties, and greater resistance to chemical attack and weathering. However, at a commercial level there are few developments focused on fireproof coatings (flame retardant) for fire protection in infrastructure.

Traditional fireproof coatings are cementitious coatings, based on Portland cement, magnesium oxychloride cement, vermiculite, gypsum and other minerals. In addition, they contain fibrous fillers, binders, supplements and additives that control density and rheology, these materials are generally mixed with water on site and applied by spraying some construction or can be applied to a flammable substrate by using a roller, in thicknesses of half an inch or more. However, due to their weight, thickness and poor aesthetics, they limit architectural design.

In coatings and paint industry, there is a wide variety of coatings based on different types of resins (polymers) and additives. Due to their nature, most of these coatings are flammable and combustible materials. That is, they are materials that can catch fire when exposed to fire, suffering degradation and the release of heat to subsequently initiate the spread of the flame, releasing smoke and toxic gases, being a danger to the safety of human life and property. On the other hand, polymer-based fireproof coatings use conventional additives based on halogens (bromine and chlorine), as well as phosphorus, melamine and inorganic compounds, to improve the fire resistance of the coatings, however, these materials are toxic to humans and the environment.

In recent years, Energeia-Graphenemex has focused on the production of graphene materials. Graphene is the most revolutionary nanotechnological additive for the coatings and paints industry, as it allows the development of coatings with extraordinary anti-corrosion protection, coatings with antimicrobial properties, coatings with better adhesion to substrates and greater resistance to UV radiation. In this sense, graphene oxide (GO) has been shown to be a new additive that helps inhibit or reduce the flammability of coatings, to produce effective fireproof coatings.

Its efficiency is associated with the fact that GO has a strong barrier effect, high thermal stability and great surface absorption capacity that are favorable for effectively reducing heat and mass transfer.

The incorporation of GO in coatings can improve flame resistance, by inhibiting the two key terms: heat and fuel. That is, it can function as a flame retardant in the following ways:

• GO possesses a unique two-dimensional layer structure and can promote the formation of a dense continuous layer of carbon during the combustion process (see Fig. 1). Carbon can act as a physical barrier to prevent heat transfer from the heat source and delay the escape of products (pyrolysis) from the coating.

• Because GO has a large surface area, it can effectively adsorb flammable volatile organic compounds or hinder their release and diffusion during combustion.

• The presence of oxygenated groups in the GO structure means that, during the combustion of the coating, the oxygen-containing groups in GO can undergo decomposition and dehydration at low temperature, thus absorbing heat and cooling the polymeric substrate during combustion. Meanwhile, gases generated by dehydration can dilute the oxygen concentration around the ignition periphery, decreasing the risk of fire spread.

In summary, the incorporation of GO in coatings can provide fire protection, because they can release water and provide thermal insulation effects.

Graphene-based flame-retardant coatings are designed to retard ignition and burn rate, and must provide a fire-resistant barrier.

Energeia – Graphenemex®, Mexican company, leader in Latin America in research and production of graphene materials for the development of industrial applications. It has extensive experience in the large-scale production of graphene oxide (GO) and has high-quality graphene materials for sale for use in different industries.

Fig.1 Flame retardancy test of coatings (Method based on UL-94 classification), where;
a) coating without GO and b) Coating with GO.

References

  1. Sachin Sharma Ashok Kumar, Shahid Bashir, K. Ramesh, S. Ramesh, Progress in Organic Coatings, 154, (2021)
  2. Weil, Edward. D. Fire-Protective and Flame-Retardant Coatings – A State-of-the-Art Review. Journal of Fire Sciences, 29(3), 259–296.
  3. Lipiäinen, H., Chen, Q., Larismaa, J., & Hannula, S. P. (2016). The Effect of Fire Retardants on the Fire Resistance of Unsaturated Polyester Resin Coating. Key Engineering Materials, 674, 277–282.
  4. Md Julker Nine, Dusan Losic. Mahmood Aliofkhazraei, Nasar Ali, Mircea Chipara, Nadhira Bensaada Laidani, Jeff Th.M. De Hosson, Handbook of Modern Coating Technologies, Elsevier, 2021, Pages 453-492.